Sedm let v jižní Africe
Velké dobrodružství - Od diamantových polí do říše marucké Stáhnout e-knihu     |
Formát: PDF
Počet stran: 298
Velikost: 17,82 MB
Knižní žánr: cestopisy
Jazyk: čeština
Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 05.01.2019, 15:46
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Sedm let v jižní Africe
Druhá cesta Stáhnout e-knihu     |
Formát: PDF
Počet stran: 248
Velikost: 17,42 MB
Knižní žánr: cestopisy
Jazyk: čeština
Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 05.01.2019, 13:23
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Sedm let v jižní Africe
První cesta Stáhnout e-knihu     |
Formát: PDF
Počet stran: 255
Velikost: 12,56 MB
Knižní žánr: cestopisy
Jazyk: čeština
Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 05.01.2019, 13:21
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Zbyněk Sviták
Úvod do historické topografie českých zemí
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Formát: PDF
Počet stran: 106
Velikost: 713 kB
Knižní žánr: historie
Jazyk: čeština
ISBN: 978-80-210-7121-6 Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 05.01.2019, 13:19
| Anotace: Skripta prezentují definici a cíle historické topografie, její prameny i stručný přehled vývoje oboru. Dále se věnují názvům lokalit v pramenech, mapovým zobrazením a územním vývojem českých zemí, rekonstrukcí osídlení a komunikační sítě.
Toby Wilkinson
The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt
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Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 605
Velikost: 76,1 MB
Knižní žánr: historie
Jazyk: angličtina
ISBN: 978-0-679-60429-7 Cena: 9.99 USD Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 11.01.2024, 01:20
| Anotace: In this landmark work, one of the world's most renowned Egyptologists tells the epic story of this great civilization, from its birth as the first nation-state to its final absorption into the Roman Empire--three thousand years of wild drama, bold spectacle, and unforgettable characters.
Award-winning scholar Toby Wilkinson captures not only the lavish pomp and artistic grandeur of this land of pyramids and pharaohs but for the first time reveals the constant propaganda and repression that were its foundations. Drawing upon forty years of archaeological research, Wilkinson takes us inside an exotic tribal society with a pre-monetary economy and decadent, divine kings who ruled with all-too-recognizable human emotions.
Here are the years of the Old Kingdom, where Pepi II, made king as an infant, was later undermined by rumors of his affair with an army general, and the Middle Kingdom, a golden age of literature and jewelry in which the benefits of the afterlife became available for all, not just royalty--a concept later underlying Christianity. Wilkinson then explores the legendary era of the New Kingdom, a lost world of breathtaking opulence founded by Ahmose, whose parents were siblings, and who married his sister and transformed worship of his family into a national cult. Other leaders include Akhenaten, the "heretic king," who with his wife Nefertiti brought about a revolution with a bold new religion; his son Tutankhamun, whose dazzling tomb would remain hidden for three millennia; and eleven pharaohs called Ramesses, the last of whom presided over the militarism, lawlessness, and corruption that caused a crucial political and societal decline.
Riveting and revelatory, filled with new information and unique interpretations, The Rise and Fall of Ancient Egypt will become the standard source about this great civilization, one that lasted--so far--longer than any other.
Z rodiny a domácnosti staročeské
Stáhnout e-knihu     |
Formát: PDF
Počet stran: 281
Velikost: 1,78 MB
Knižní žánr: historie
Jazyk: čeština
Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 05.01.2019, 01:53
| Anotace: Náhled do české středověké domácnosti, jejich kuchyně a stolování, jak se oblékali, žili a umírali.
Dějiny kroje v zemích Českých
Od počátku století XV. až po dobu bělohorské bitvy Stáhnout e-knihu     |
Formát: PDF
Počet stran: 684
Velikost: 24,09 MB
Knižní žánr: historie
Jazyk: čeština
Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 05.01.2019, 01:53
| Anotace: Dějiny kroje v zemích českých od počátku století 15. stol
Český průmysl a obchod v XVI věku
Stáhnout e-knihu     |
Formát: PDF
Počet stran: 702
Velikost: 39,84 MB
Knižní žánr: historie
Jazyk: čeština
Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 05.01.2019, 01:49
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Dějiny řemesel a obchodu v Čechách v XIV. a v XV. století
Stáhnout e-knihu     |
Formát: PDF
Počet stran: 992
Velikost: 30,72 MB
Knižní žánr: historie
Jazyk: čeština
Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 05.01.2019, 01:32
| Anotace: Obsáhlá historická práce věnovaná dějinám řemesla, průmyslu a obchodu v době lucemburské a husitské, tedy ve 14.-15. století. Kniha kromě dějin řemesel a obchodu podává i dějiny malířství a architektury, které byly v době jejího vydání (1906) považovány za druh řemesla. Publikace vychází z archivních pramenů, které jsou na každé straně citovány, a je doplněna souhrnným rejstříkem.
Život a učení na partikulárních školách v Čechách v XV. a XVI. století
Stáhnout e-knihu     |
Formát: PDF
Počet stran: 844
Velikost: 27,89 MB
Knižní žánr: historie
Jazyk: čeština
Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 05.01.2019, 01:16
| Anotace: Pokus o zdokumentování českého školství v 15. a 16. století včetně snahy o zachycení života učitelů i žactva tehdejšího.
Virtual History
Alternatives and Counterfactuals     |
Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 475
Velikost: 548 kB
Knižní žánr: historie
Jazyk: angličtina
ISBN: 97-8-078-67257-9 Cena: 16.99 USD Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 22:22
| Anotace: What if there had been no American War of Independence? What if Hitler had invaded Britain? What if Kennedy had lived? What if Russia had won the Cold War? Niall Ferguson, author of the highly acclaimed The Pity of War, leads the charge in this historically rigorous series of separate voyages into “imaginary time” and provides far-reaching answers to these intriguing questions.Ferguson's brilliant 90-page introduction doubles as a manifesto on the methodology of counter-factual history. His equally masterful afterword traces the likely historical ripples that would have proceeded from the maintenance of Stuart rule in England. This breathtaking narrative gives us a convincing, detailed “alternative history” of the West—from the accession of “James III” in 1701, to a Nazi-occupied England, to a U.S. Prime Minister Kennedy who lives to complete his term.
The War of the World
History's Age of Hatred     |
Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 866
Velikost: 2,93 MB
Knižní žánr: historie
Jazyk: angličtina
Cena: 17.99 USD Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 22:20
| Anotace: The beginning of the twentieth century saw human civilization at its most enlightened, well-educated, globalized and wealthy. What turned it into a bloodbath?
Niall Ferguson re-tells the story of history's most savage century as a continual war that raged for 100 years. From the plains of Poland to the killing fields of Cambodia, he reveals how economic boom-and-bust, decaying empires and, above all, poisonous ideas of race led men to treat each other as aliens. It was an age of hatred that ended with the twilight, not the triumph, of the West. And, he shows, it could happen all over again.
'A heartbreaking, serious and thoughtful survey of human evil that is utterly fascinating and dramatic' Simon Sebag Montefiore, The New York Times
'Unputdownable, controversial, compelling' Independent on Sunday
'The grenade lobbed into the cosy tea party of received wisdom' Max Hastings
'A big, bold and brilliantly belligerent book' Sunday Telegraph
'History at its most controversial ... no one can afford to overlook it' Allan Mallinson
'Hums with energy, quotable insights and pithy summaries' Observer
'Gripping' Tristram Hunt
The Great Degeneration
How Institutions Decay and Economies Die     |
Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 143
Velikost: 1,47 MB
Knižní žánr: historie
Jazyk: angličtina
ISBN: 978-1-101-60845-6 Cena: 9.99 USD Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 22:18
| Anotace: What causes rich countries to lose their way? Symptoms of decline are all around us today: slowing growth, crushing debts, increasing inequality, aging populations, antisocial behavior. But what exactly has gone wrong? The answer, Niall Ferguson argues in The Great Degeneration, is that our institutions—the intricate frameworks within which a society can flourish or fail—are degenerating. With characteristic verve and historical insight, Ferguson analyzes the causes of this stagnation and its profound consequences for the future of the West. The Great Degeneration is an incisive indictment of an era of negligence and complacency—and to arrest the breakdown of our civilization, Ferguson warns, will take heroic leadership and radical reform.
The Ascent of Money
A Financial History of the World     |
Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 346
Velikost: 3,95 MB
Knižní žánr: historie
Jazyk: angličtina
ISBN: 978-1-440-65402-2 Cena: 9.99 USD Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 22:17
| Anotace: Niall Ferguson follows the money to tell the human story behind the evolution of our financial system, from its genesis in ancient Mesopotamia to the latest upheavals on what he calls Planet Finance. What's more, Ferguson reveals financial history as the essential backstory behind all history, arguing that the evolution of credit and debt was as important as any technological innovation in the rise of civilization. As Ferguson traces the crisis from ancient Egypt's Memphis to today's Chongqing, he offers bold and compelling new insights into the rise--and fall--of not just money but Western power as well.
Empire
The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power     |
Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 486
Velikost: 2,16 MB
Knižní žánr: historie
Jazyk: angličtina
ISBN: 978-0-465-01310-4 Cena: 13.99 USD Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 22:15
| Anotace: The British Empire was the largest in all history: the nearest thing to world domination ever achieved. By the eve of World War II, around a quarter of the world's land surface was under some form of British rule. Yet for today's generation, the British Empire seems a Victorian irrelevance. The time is ripe for a reappraisal, and in Empire, Niall Ferguson boldly recasts the British Empire as one of the world's greatest modernizing forces.An important new work of synthesis and revision, Empire argues that the world we know today is in large measure the product of Britain's Age of Empire. The spread of capitalism, the communications revolution, the notion of humanitarianism, and the institutions of parliamentary democracy-all these can be traced back to the extraordinary expansion of Britain's economy, population, and culture from the seventeenth century until the mid-twentieth. On a vast and vividly colored canvas, Empire shows how the British Empire acted as midwife to modernity.Displaying the originality and rigor that have made him the brightest light among British historians, Ferguson shows that the story of the Empire is pregnant with lessons for today-in particular for the United States as it stands on the brink of a new era of imperial power, based once again on economic and military supremacy. A dazzling tour de force, Empire is a remarkable reappraisal of the prizes and pitfalls of global empire.
Civilization
The West and the Rest     |
Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 559
Velikost: 2,67 MB
Knižní žánr: historie
Jazyk: angličtina
ISBN: 978-1-84-614282-6 Cena: 15.99 USD Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 22:11
| Anotace: Western civilization’s rise to global dominance is the single most important historical phenomenon of the past five centuries.
How did the West overtake its Eastern rivals? And has the zenith of Western power now passed? Acclaimed historian Niall Ferguson argues that beginning in the fifteenth century, the West developed six powerful new concepts, or “killer applications”—competition, science, the rule of law, modern medicine, consumerism, and the work ethic—that the Rest lacked, allowing it to surge past all other competitors.
Yet now, Ferguson shows how the Rest have downloaded the killer apps the West once monopolized, while the West has literally lost faith in itself. Chronicling the rise and fall of empires alongside clashes (and fusions) of civilizations, Civilization: The West and the Rest recasts world history with force and wit. Boldly argued and teeming with memorable characters, this is Ferguson at his very best.
Cash Nexus
Money and Power in the Modern World 1700 - 2000     |
Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 568
Velikost: 4,08 MB
Knižní žánr: historie
Jazyk: angličtina
ISBN: 978-0-141-97641-9 Cena: 16.99 USD Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 22:10
| Anotace: Conventional wisdom has long claimed that economic change is the prime mover of political change, whether in the age of industry or Internet. But is it? Ferguson thinks it is high time we re-examined the link-the nexus, in Thomas Carlyle's phrase-between economics and politics. His central argument is that the conflicting impulses of sex, violence, and power are together more powerful than money. Among Ferguson's startling claims are: · Nothing has done more to transform the world economy than war, yet wars themselves do not have primarily economic causes. · The present age of economic globalization is coinciding-paradoxically-with political and military fragmentation. · Financial crises are frequently caused by unforeseen political events rather than economic fluctuations. · The relationship between prosperity and government popularity is largely illusory. · Since political and economic liberalization are not self-perpetuating, the so-called triumph of democracy worldwide may be short-lived. · A bold synthesis of political history and modern economic theory, Cash Nexus will transform the landscape of modern history and draw challenging conclusions about the prospects of both capitalism and democracy.
Oliver Matuschek
Three Lives
A biography of Stefan Zweig     |
Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 424
Velikost: 3,62 MB
Knižní žánr: biografie
Jazyk: angličtina
ISBN: 978-1-906548-95-7 Cena: 7.99 USD Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 17:51
| Anotace: Drawing on a great wealth of newly available sources, this definitive biography recounts the eventful life of a great writer spoilt by success—a life lived in the shadow of two world wars, and which ended tragically in a suicide pact.
Matuschek examines three major phases in the life of the world-famous Austrian author—his years of apprenticeship, his years of success as a professional working writer in Salzburg, and finally his years of exile in Britain, the USA and Brazil.
Including the sort of personal detail conspicuously absent from Zweig's memoir, and incorporating newly discovered documents, Matuschek's biography offers us a privileged view into the private world of the master of psychological insight.
Zmatení citů
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Formát: EPUB Původní název: Der Amokläufer, Der Brief einer Unbekannten, Verwirrung der Gefühle, Vierundzwanzig Stunden aus dem Leben einer Frau, Schachnovelle
Počet stran: 244
Velikost: 320 kB
Knižní žánr: beletrie
Jazyk: čeština
ISBN: 978-80-207-1698-9 Cena: 209.00 CZK Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 17:48
| Anotace: Tématem Zweigových novel je náhle propuknuvší vášeň, která zcela převrátí život protagonistů. V našem výboru propadají nezvladatelné vášni jak muži, tak ženy – jsou posedlí dramaticky končící závislostí na druhém, ale i stejném pohlaví. Jen závěrečná Šachová novela, psaná už v emigraci, nemá sexuální, nýbrž politický podtext. Mistr psychologické prózy Stefan Zweig se narodil roku 1881 ve Vídni a zemřel vlastní rukou roku 1942 v Brazílii.
Holderlin, Kleist, and Nietzsche
The Struggle with the Daemon     |
Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 228
Velikost: 434 kB
Knižní žánr: biografie
Jazyk: angličtina
ISBN: 978-1-4128-1135-4 Cena: 47.89 USD Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 17:38
| Anotace: "The Struggle with the Daemon" is a brilliant analysis of the European psyche by the great novelist and biographer Stefan Zweig. Zweig studies three giants of German literature and thought: Friedrich Hölderlin, Heinrich von Kleist, and Friedrich Nietzsche--powerful minds whose ideas were at odds with the scientific positivism of their age; troubled spirits whose intoxicating passions drove them mad but inspired them to great works.
Born in Vienna in 1881, Stefan Zweig travelled widely, living in Salzburg, Austria, between the wars. He enjoyed worldwide literary fame, first as a poet and translator, then as a biographer.
Lékařka
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Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 261
Velikost: 334 kB
Knižní žánr: beletrie
Jazyk: čeština
Cena: 159.00 CZK Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 17:34
| Anotace: Dějištěm třetího románu Noaha Gordona, vyprávějícího o lékařské rodině Coleů, je současná Amerika. Poslední potomek rodu, Roberta J. Coleová, pokračuje v rodinné tradici a stává se významnou lékařkou. Po letech strávených v Bostonu, když její manželství skončilo a práce v nemocnici jí začíná připadat příliš odlidštěná, má pocit, že své existenci musí dát nový směr. Odchází do horského městečka uprostřed nedotčené přírody a otevře si zde soukromou praxi. S novými zkušenostmi, přáteli a bližními, jejichž osudy spoluprožívá a jimž se snaží pomoci, v prolnutí dobrého i zlého v každodenním údělu, kde je však prostor pro osobní volbu, postupně nachází nový smysl svého života.
Ranhojič
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Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 694
Velikost: 738 kB
Knižní žánr: beletrie
Jazyk: čeština
Cena: 223.00 CZK Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 17:33
| Anotace: Rozsáhlý román se odehrává v 11. století. Líčí bouřlivý příběh nadaného léčitele, který bojoval s nemocemi v primitivních podmínkách středověké Anglie a Persie a poznal nádheru zlatého věku arabské a židovské civilizace. Robert Jeremy Cole má zázračný dar: dokáže vycítit blízkost smrti. Je předurčen, aby léčil lidi. Vydá se do Persie, za nejslavnějším lékařem doby Ibn Sínou (Avicennou), a předstírá židovský původ, aby mohl studovat na věhlasné akademii. Když se ožení s křesťankou, vzbudí ve svém okolí nejprve pohoršení, ale nakonec si najde cestu k srdci sousedů. Podaří se mu uskutečnit, co si vždy přál: stane se lékařem, sbírá zkušenosti jako vojenský doktor, získá si pověst výborného chirurga...
Šaman
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Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 642
Velikost: 666 kB
Knižní žánr: beletrie
Jazyk: čeština
Cena: 223.00 CZK Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 17:30
| Anotace: Klasický western, historický román, politický thriller, román o naději a zklamání, o válce a míru, o lásce a nenávisti, o přátelství a zradě, o rozumu a víře, o demokracii a zvůli, kniha nabitá dějem, prošpikovaná jemným humorem - to vše je Šaman - další z románů Noaha Gordona, které sledují osudy skotské lékařské dynastie Coleů v průběhu dějin.
Autobiography
Stáhnout e-knihu     |
Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 170
Velikost: 172 kB
Knižní žánr: biografie
Jazyk: angličtina
Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 17:24
| Anotace: One of the greatest prodigies of his era, John Stuart Mill (1806-73) was studying arithmetic and Greek by the age of three, as part of an astonishingly intense education at his father's hand. Intellectually brilliant, fearless and profound, he became a leading Victorian liberal thinker, whose works - including On Liberty, Utilitarianism, The Subjection of Women and this autobiography - are among the crowning achievements of the age. Here he describes the pressures placed on him by his childhood, the mental breakdown he suffered as a young man, his struggle to understand a world of feelings and emotions far removed from his father's strict didacticism, and the later development of his own radical beliefs. A moving account of an extraordinary life, this great autobiography reveals a man of deep integrity, constantly searching for truth.
Immanuel Kant
The Metaphysical Elements of Ethics
Stáhnout e-knihu     |
Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 31
Velikost: 35 kB
Knižní žánr: filozofie
Jazyk: angličtina
Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 17:20
| Anotace: These are such moral qualities as, when a man does not possess them, he is not bound to acquire them. They are: the moral feeling, conscience, love of one's neighbour, and respect for ourselves (self-esteem). There is no obligation to have these, since they are subjective conditions of susceptibility for the notion of duty, not objective conditions of morality.
Immanuel Kant
The Critique of Practical Reason
Stáhnout e-knihu     |
Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 130
Velikost: 133 kB
Knižní žánr: filozofie
Jazyk: angličtina
Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 16:46
| Anotace: This seminal text in the history of moral philosophy elaborates the basic themes of Kant's moral theory, gives the most complete statement of his highly original theory of freedom of the will, and develops his practical metaphysics. This new edition, prepared by an acclaimed translator and scholar of Kant's practical philosophy, presents the first new translation of the work to appear for some years, together with a substantial and lucid introduction.
Immanuel Kant
Of the Injustice of Counterfeiting Books
Stáhnout e-knihu     |
Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 9
Velikost: 12 kB
Knižní žánr: filozofie
Jazyk: angličtina
Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 16:43
| Anotace: This essay of Kant’s on copyright argues that the unlicensed copying of books cannot possibly be permissible, due to the fact that it assumes a consent on the part of the author which it is logically impossible for the author to give. The argument is dependent upon an assumption that the writings be commodified, for the reason why the author is unable to possibly give consent to multiple publishers is due to the author’s will – to communicate with the public – necessitating the profitability of the publisher, for, it is assumed, there is no way to communicate with the public at large without a great expense which can only be borne by a publishing firm. This is, of course, no longer a necessary assumption.
Other arguments here are also of interest: this is a foundational document in claims regarding the moral rights of authors, and Kant’s account of the connection between the communicative intent of the author and the rights resultant is of continuing importance (even though it is not often taken into account in contemporary debates, and has only a tenuous relation to contemporary copyright law); the distinction between works and acts in the “Universal Observation” (the third section of the essay) strikes us as odd today, but is worthy of consideration; his admission of the permissibility of derivative works is striking; and, strangely, the first footnote uses as a reductio ad absurdum an idea of liability which underlies what United States law today calls by the name of “contributory infringement.”
The Wisdom of Life
Stáhnout e-knihu     |
Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 89
Velikost: 92 kB
Knižní žánr: filozofie
Jazyk: angličtina
Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 16:39
| Anotace: A leading German metaphysician of the 19th century, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) exerted an influence far beyond the hermetic world of philosophy, with adherents ranging from Richard Wagner and Friedrich Nietzsche to Leo Tolstoy and Thomas Mann. Among Schopenhauer's chief contributions to the field of philosophy are his rejection of the idealism of his contemporaries and his embrace of a practical variety of materialism. He jettisons the traditional philosophic jargon for a brisk, compelling style that employs direct terms to express the metaphysics of the will.
In The Wisdom of Life, an essay from Schopenhauer's final work, Parerga und Paralipomena (1851), the philosopher favors individual strength of will and independent, reasoned deliberation over the tendency to act on irrational impulses. He examines the ways in which life can be arranged to derive the highest degree of pleasure and success, presents guidelines to achieving this full and rich manner of living, and advises that even a life well lived must always aspire to grander heights. Abounding in subjects of enduring relevance, Schopenhauer's highly readable work appears here in an excellent translation.
The Art of Controversy
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Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 67
Velikost: 70 kB
Knižní žánr: filozofie
Jazyk: angličtina
Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 16:34
| Anotace: Arthur Schopenhauer is one of the most important 19th century philosophers, most famous for his work, The World as Will and Representation. He is known for having espounced a sort of philosophical pessimism that saw life as being essentially evil and futile, but saw hope in aesthetics, sympathy for others and ascetic living.
On Human Nature
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Formát: EPUB
Počet stran: 74
Velikost: 76 kB
Knižní žánr: filozofie
Jazyk: angličtina
Přečteno: NE Vloženo: 04.01.2019, 16:32
| Anotace: Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) was a German philosopher best known for his work The World as Will and Representation. He responded to and expanded upon Immanuel Kant's philosophy concerning the way in which we experience the world. His critique of Kant, his creative solutions to the problems of human experience and his explication of the limits of human knowledge are among his most important achievements. His metaphysical theory is the foundation of his influential writings on psychology, aesthetics, ethics, and politics which influenced Friedrich Nietzsche, Wagner, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Sigmund Freud and others. He said he was influenced by the Upanishads, Immanuel Kant, and Plato. References to Eastern philosophy and religion appear frequently in his writing. He appreciated the teachings of the Buddha and even called himself a Buddhaist. He said that his philosophy could not have been conceived before these teachings were available. He called himself a Kantian. He formulated a pessimistic philosophy that gained importance and support after the failure of the German and Austrian revolutions of 1848.

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